Ch. 37 Study Guide
Chapter #37: IDENTIFICATIONS
Earl Warren
- Chief Justice and former governor of California; brought originally taboo social issues, such as civil rights to African Americans, to the attention of Congress and the country. Known for the "Brown v. Board of Education" case of 1954.
Rosa Parks
Rosa Parks a seamstress and a secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP, was known as the "mother of the civil rights movement." In December of 1955, Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white rider. She was jailed and fined $14 for the offense. This led to Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Ho Chi Minh
The Vietnamese leader who believed in Asian nationalism and anti-colonialism in his country. He was trying to get rid of the French colonial rule in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh's beliefs were discouraged by the Cold War and he became increasingly communist. He lead the North Vietnamese against the U.S. and the south Vietnamese. He was the enemy in Vietnam.
Ngo Dinh Diem
Ngo Dinh Diem, a strong anti-communist, proclaimed South Vietnam a republic on Oct. 26, 1956 and became its first president. He was formerly the Premier of Vietnam. He was assassinated by a military coup d'etat.
Gamal Abdel Nasser
The hard-nosed Arab-nationalist president of Egypt during the Suez Canal crisis in 1956. He seized the Suez Canal from the English and French. England and France were willing to use force to get it back. Soviets try to interfere. Eisenhower made them back down when he put the Strategic Air Command on alert.
Nikita Khruschev
(1894-1971) Leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. Khrushchev was critical of Stalinメs policies and attempted to reverse some of them. He is responsible for placing nuclear missiles in Cuba which resulted in the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Fidel Castro
He engineered a revolution in Cuba in 1959. He denounced the imperialists and took valuable American property for a land-distribution program. When the U.S. cut off U.S. imports of Cuban sugar, Castro took more U.S. land and resulting from that his dictatorship became similar to Stalin's in Russia. (Communism in the Western Hemisphere)
Desegregation / integration
Depletion or destruction of a potentially renewable resource such as soil, grassland, forest, or wildlife that is used faster than it is naturally replenished. If such use continues, the resource becomes nonrenewable (on a human time scale) or nonexistent (extinct). See also sustainable yield.
massive retaliation
John Foster Dulles formulated this policy for Eisenhower. He was Eisenhower's secretary of state in the 1950's. It stated that America would be willing to use nuclear weapons against aggressor nations instead of "limited" warfare. This led to the stockpiling of nuclear weapons.
military-industrial complex
During the Cold War military funding increased tremendously and at the end of Eisenhower's administration he warned about forming a "military-industrial complex" in which industry received huge government contracts to build for the military.
Brown v. Board of Education
The case brought before the Supreme Court in May 1954 in which the Court ruled that segregation of races in public schools was unconstitutional.
Geneva Conference
The Geneva conference split the nation of Vietnam roughly in half along the seventeenth parallel., and established a shaky peace in the nation of Laos.
South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)
SEATO was introduced by secretary Dulles as a prop for his shaky policy in Vietnam. (Similar to NATO)
Hungarian Revolt
When the Hungarians tried to win their freedom from the Communist regime in 1956, they were crushed down by Soviet tanks. There was killing and slaughtering of the rebels going on by military forces.
Suez Crisis
Suez Crisis: when President Nasser of Egypt announced his intention to build a damn in the Suez to provide power and irrigation to Egypt, the United States offered its financial support, withdrawing it when Nasser spoke with the Communists on the subject. Nasser responded by nationalizing the Suez canal, which was previously owned by British and French stockholders. This hurt Europe by crippling their oil supply, most of which came from the Persian Gulf. The French and British retaliated by striking Egypt, confident that the United States would supply them with the oil they needed while they fought with the Middle East. President Eisenhower refused to do so, forcing the allies to withdraw their troops. As a result, U.N. troops acted for the first time to maintain peace and order in the world. Soviets tried to interfere. Eisenhower put the Strategic Air Command on alert.
Eisenhower Doctrine
1957 - Congress and US President pledged US military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression. Under the Doctrine the US was able to openly land several thousand troops and help restore order without taking a single life.
Sputnik
Soviet satellite put into orbit around Earth in 1957. It was the first man made satellite put into orbit.
National Defense and Education Act — (NDEA)
(NDEA) After the Russian satellite "Sputnik" was successfully launched, there was a critical comparison of the Russian to the American education system. The American education system was already seen as too easygoing. So in 1958 Congress made the NDEA, authorizing $887 million in loans to needy college students and in grants for the purpose of improving the teaching of the sciences and languages.
U-2 Incident
Under Eisenhower administration just before the "summit conference" in Paris scheduled for May 1960, the American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Russia. Eisenhower was forced to step up and assume personal responsibility for the incident. Francis Gary Powers was the pilot that was captured by the Russians but returned. Incident kept Khrushchev from meeting with Eisenhower.
Chapter #37 Guided Reading Questions
Affluence and Its Anxieties
Know: IBM, Information Age, Ozzie and Harriet, The Feminine Mystique
1. What was life like for women in the 1950's?
- The role of women in the 1950 was a society-endorsing template that all women had to fill. Women had to be prefect mothers, obedient wives and clever homemakers. This perfection was not n a personal level, but rather on societies standards. The raising of the new generation was extremely important at this time so women worked diligently and hard to fill the oversized shoes prepared for them. Many TV shows of the fifties portrays this angelic mother figure with not a care in the world except her children. That is merely an illusion: women were bored, they wanted something more mind stimulating and weaving just didn't cut it
Consumer Culture in the Fifties
Know: Diner's Club, McDonald's, Disneyland, Television, Elvis Presley, Marilyn Monroe, Playboy, The Affluent Society
2. How was popular culture changing and reflecting America?
- Since television was becoming very popular in a household of your average family during that time. Society was becoming more controversial and it was was easy especially for tv personals to endorse their own personalities and popularize their music and their image. Like Elvis Presley introduced rock n' roll. Marilyn Monroe was the first person ever to illustrate that sexuality sells. The average family didn't have to cook often since new food chains like McDonalds and Diner's club were a fast and easy way to get food. Playboy was the first magazine ever to express women naked and it was okay for women to be exposed like that. 1950's were the era that society took a whole 180 degrees in a more risque way.
The Advent of Eisenhower
Know: Adlai E. Stevenson, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Checkers Speech
3. Describe the 1952 presidential election.
- In 1952, Eisenhower and Nixon got 442 out of the electoral vote and 55.18% of the popular vote. Stevenson and Sparkman only got 89 electoral vote and 44.33% of the popular vote. In 1952, Nixon took to television and delivered what has been dubbed the “Checkers” speech, in which he acknowledged the existence of the fund but denied that any of it had been used improperly.
The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy
Know: Joseph McCarthy
4. Joseph McCarthy may have been more dangerous to our form of government than any communists who might have been in the country. Explain.
- Because Joseph Mcarthy was so persuaded that are country was being invaded by communist he accused anyone as being communists without even any reasonable cause.
Desegregating American Society
Know: Jim Crow Laws, Emmett Till, Jackie Robinson, NAACP, Thurgood Marshall, Rosa Parks, Montgomery Bus Boycott, Martin Luther King Jr.
5. What conditions in the South brought about the beginnings of the Civil Rights movement?
Due to segregation, it angered several African American people including some whites about the unfair treatment the Blacks were given . One example is rosa Parks who refused to give up her seat to a white person on the bus. The Montgomery Bus Boycott where they refused to ride on the bus causing a severe down fall in the money. Also, the most famous of them all Martin Luther King Jr. who believed in civil disobedience and not fighting back.
Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution
Know: Earl Warren, Brown v. Board of Education, All Deliberate Speed, Little Rock Central High School, Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Sit-ins, Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee
6. Why was Brown v. Board of Education a landmark case?
- This was a landmark case because Brown v Board of Education was a landmark case because it overturned a previous Supreme Court decision (Plessy v Ferguson) which had essentially legalized discrimination and segregation. The SC ruling in Brown was that "separate but equal" was inherently never equal and was determined to be discrimination based on the 14th Amendment. That amendment was one of the Reconstruction Acts that was supposed to eliminate discrimination of the former slaves in the US. Plessy had put limitations on the 14th Amendment allowing segregation is the services were essentially the same (and "essentially was very loosely interpreted). In overturning Plessy, the whole Civil Rights movement got jumpstarted and was able to gain momentum in overturning all of the discrimination in services in the US.
Makers of America: The Great African-American Migration
7. Why did African Americans move north and west in the 1930's and 40's?
- During the war, jobs were needed in factories in the South. White workers were hired on the spot, but blacks were commonly denied. Business owners in the South would even import white workers from the North and West instead of hiring skilled black workers.
Eisenhower Republicanism at Home
Know: Dynamic Conservatism, Creeping Socialism, Interstate Highway Act, AFL-CIO
8. Did Eisenhower live up to his philosophy of dynamic conservatism?
- Eisenhower vetoed public housing measures, pollution regulation, and two major publics works projects. This reflects his attempts to not have the government be an agent of reform, especially if it prevents a balanced budget.
A “New Look” in Foreign Policy
Know: John Foster Dulles, Strategic Air Command, Massive Retaliation, Military-industrial Complex
9. Was Eisenhower's policy of massive retaliation effective? Explain.
-The term "massive retaliation" was coined by Eisenhower administration Secretary of State John Foster Dulles in a speech on January 12, 1954. By relying on a large nuclear arsenal for deterrence, President Eisenhower believed that conventional forces could be reduced while still maintaining military prestige and power and the capability to defend the western block.
Cold War Crises in Europe and the Middle East
Know: Shah of Iran, Gamal Abdel Nasser, The Suez Crisis, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Country
11. Why was the U.S. concerned about problems in the Middle East?
- Since the 19th century, US foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from .... While there are disputed issues between the two nations, relations are close and the ... See also: American intervention in the Middle East .
Round Two for "Ike"
Know: Teamsters, Jimmy Hoffa, Landrum-Griffin Act, , Missile Gap, National Defense and Education Act
12. What labor problems became evident during Eisenhower's second term?
- Labor problems were not severe at this time. There are always some strikes and the unions always want to repeal Taft-Hartley, but labor problems were not a focus in the 1960 campaign
The Continuing Cold War
Know: U-2 Spy Plane
13. Describe efforts at disarmament during the Eisenhower administration.
- Eisenhower hoped that after the death of Stalin in 1953, it would be possible to come to an agreement with subsequent Russian leaders to halt the nuclear arms race. The U-2 Spy plane was discovered and it was very embarrassing during that time.
Cuba's Castroism Spells Communism
Know: Fulgencio Batista, Fidel Castro
14. Why was revolution in Cuba such a concern to America?
- By most social and economic indicators, Cuba by mid-century was among Latin America’s most highly developed countries. However, in the postwar period it was afflicted with lacklustre economic growth and a corrupt political dictatorship set up in 1952 by the same Batista who earlier had helped put his country on a seemingly democratic path. It was also a country whose long history of economic and other dependence on the United States had fed nationalist resentment, although control of the sugar industry and other economic sectors by U.S. interests was gradually declining.
Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency
Know: Richard Nixon, Kitchen Debate, John Kennedy, New Frontier
15. Was Nixon a good presidential candidate in 1960?
- The United States presidential election of 1960 was the 44th American presidential election, held on November 8, 1960, for the term beginning January 20, 1961, and ending January 20, 1965. For this election, although Nixon did not win the spot, he did receive a very close amount of votes to the rival candidate Kennedy. This makes him a pretty good candidate at the time.
An Old General Fades Away
Know: Alaska, Hawaii
16. Evaluate Eisenhower's presidency.
- Oversaw Korean War, kept the pressure on the USSR during the Cold War, launched the Space Race, began the Interstate Highway System.
The Life of the Mind in Postwar America
Know: Catch-22, Arthur Miller, Catcher in the Rye, George Orwell
17. What do the books and plays of the post-war period say about the times in which they were produced?
- During these times a lot of people didn't know who to believe. They were also confused at the whole arms race between the US and USSR. This time society was changing and the cliche middle class family was beaming more popular, while society was becoming more risque.
Earl Warren
- Chief Justice and former governor of California; brought originally taboo social issues, such as civil rights to African Americans, to the attention of Congress and the country. Known for the "Brown v. Board of Education" case of 1954.
Rosa Parks
Rosa Parks a seamstress and a secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP, was known as the "mother of the civil rights movement." In December of 1955, Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white rider. She was jailed and fined $14 for the offense. This led to Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Ho Chi Minh
The Vietnamese leader who believed in Asian nationalism and anti-colonialism in his country. He was trying to get rid of the French colonial rule in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh's beliefs were discouraged by the Cold War and he became increasingly communist. He lead the North Vietnamese against the U.S. and the south Vietnamese. He was the enemy in Vietnam.
Ngo Dinh Diem
Ngo Dinh Diem, a strong anti-communist, proclaimed South Vietnam a republic on Oct. 26, 1956 and became its first president. He was formerly the Premier of Vietnam. He was assassinated by a military coup d'etat.
Gamal Abdel Nasser
The hard-nosed Arab-nationalist president of Egypt during the Suez Canal crisis in 1956. He seized the Suez Canal from the English and French. England and France were willing to use force to get it back. Soviets try to interfere. Eisenhower made them back down when he put the Strategic Air Command on alert.
Nikita Khruschev
(1894-1971) Leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. Khrushchev was critical of Stalinメs policies and attempted to reverse some of them. He is responsible for placing nuclear missiles in Cuba which resulted in the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Fidel Castro
He engineered a revolution in Cuba in 1959. He denounced the imperialists and took valuable American property for a land-distribution program. When the U.S. cut off U.S. imports of Cuban sugar, Castro took more U.S. land and resulting from that his dictatorship became similar to Stalin's in Russia. (Communism in the Western Hemisphere)
Desegregation / integration
Depletion or destruction of a potentially renewable resource such as soil, grassland, forest, or wildlife that is used faster than it is naturally replenished. If such use continues, the resource becomes nonrenewable (on a human time scale) or nonexistent (extinct). See also sustainable yield.
massive retaliation
John Foster Dulles formulated this policy for Eisenhower. He was Eisenhower's secretary of state in the 1950's. It stated that America would be willing to use nuclear weapons against aggressor nations instead of "limited" warfare. This led to the stockpiling of nuclear weapons.
military-industrial complex
During the Cold War military funding increased tremendously and at the end of Eisenhower's administration he warned about forming a "military-industrial complex" in which industry received huge government contracts to build for the military.
Brown v. Board of Education
The case brought before the Supreme Court in May 1954 in which the Court ruled that segregation of races in public schools was unconstitutional.
Geneva Conference
The Geneva conference split the nation of Vietnam roughly in half along the seventeenth parallel., and established a shaky peace in the nation of Laos.
South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)
SEATO was introduced by secretary Dulles as a prop for his shaky policy in Vietnam. (Similar to NATO)
Hungarian Revolt
When the Hungarians tried to win their freedom from the Communist regime in 1956, they were crushed down by Soviet tanks. There was killing and slaughtering of the rebels going on by military forces.
Suez Crisis
Suez Crisis: when President Nasser of Egypt announced his intention to build a damn in the Suez to provide power and irrigation to Egypt, the United States offered its financial support, withdrawing it when Nasser spoke with the Communists on the subject. Nasser responded by nationalizing the Suez canal, which was previously owned by British and French stockholders. This hurt Europe by crippling their oil supply, most of which came from the Persian Gulf. The French and British retaliated by striking Egypt, confident that the United States would supply them with the oil they needed while they fought with the Middle East. President Eisenhower refused to do so, forcing the allies to withdraw their troops. As a result, U.N. troops acted for the first time to maintain peace and order in the world. Soviets tried to interfere. Eisenhower put the Strategic Air Command on alert.
Eisenhower Doctrine
1957 - Congress and US President pledged US military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression. Under the Doctrine the US was able to openly land several thousand troops and help restore order without taking a single life.
Sputnik
Soviet satellite put into orbit around Earth in 1957. It was the first man made satellite put into orbit.
National Defense and Education Act — (NDEA)
(NDEA) After the Russian satellite "Sputnik" was successfully launched, there was a critical comparison of the Russian to the American education system. The American education system was already seen as too easygoing. So in 1958 Congress made the NDEA, authorizing $887 million in loans to needy college students and in grants for the purpose of improving the teaching of the sciences and languages.
U-2 Incident
Under Eisenhower administration just before the "summit conference" in Paris scheduled for May 1960, the American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Russia. Eisenhower was forced to step up and assume personal responsibility for the incident. Francis Gary Powers was the pilot that was captured by the Russians but returned. Incident kept Khrushchev from meeting with Eisenhower.
Chapter #37 Guided Reading Questions
Affluence and Its Anxieties
Know: IBM, Information Age, Ozzie and Harriet, The Feminine Mystique
1. What was life like for women in the 1950's?
- The role of women in the 1950 was a society-endorsing template that all women had to fill. Women had to be prefect mothers, obedient wives and clever homemakers. This perfection was not n a personal level, but rather on societies standards. The raising of the new generation was extremely important at this time so women worked diligently and hard to fill the oversized shoes prepared for them. Many TV shows of the fifties portrays this angelic mother figure with not a care in the world except her children. That is merely an illusion: women were bored, they wanted something more mind stimulating and weaving just didn't cut it
Consumer Culture in the Fifties
Know: Diner's Club, McDonald's, Disneyland, Television, Elvis Presley, Marilyn Monroe, Playboy, The Affluent Society
2. How was popular culture changing and reflecting America?
- Since television was becoming very popular in a household of your average family during that time. Society was becoming more controversial and it was was easy especially for tv personals to endorse their own personalities and popularize their music and their image. Like Elvis Presley introduced rock n' roll. Marilyn Monroe was the first person ever to illustrate that sexuality sells. The average family didn't have to cook often since new food chains like McDonalds and Diner's club were a fast and easy way to get food. Playboy was the first magazine ever to express women naked and it was okay for women to be exposed like that. 1950's were the era that society took a whole 180 degrees in a more risque way.
The Advent of Eisenhower
Know: Adlai E. Stevenson, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Checkers Speech
3. Describe the 1952 presidential election.
- In 1952, Eisenhower and Nixon got 442 out of the electoral vote and 55.18% of the popular vote. Stevenson and Sparkman only got 89 electoral vote and 44.33% of the popular vote. In 1952, Nixon took to television and delivered what has been dubbed the “Checkers” speech, in which he acknowledged the existence of the fund but denied that any of it had been used improperly.
The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy
Know: Joseph McCarthy
4. Joseph McCarthy may have been more dangerous to our form of government than any communists who might have been in the country. Explain.
- Because Joseph Mcarthy was so persuaded that are country was being invaded by communist he accused anyone as being communists without even any reasonable cause.
Desegregating American Society
Know: Jim Crow Laws, Emmett Till, Jackie Robinson, NAACP, Thurgood Marshall, Rosa Parks, Montgomery Bus Boycott, Martin Luther King Jr.
5. What conditions in the South brought about the beginnings of the Civil Rights movement?
Due to segregation, it angered several African American people including some whites about the unfair treatment the Blacks were given . One example is rosa Parks who refused to give up her seat to a white person on the bus. The Montgomery Bus Boycott where they refused to ride on the bus causing a severe down fall in the money. Also, the most famous of them all Martin Luther King Jr. who believed in civil disobedience and not fighting back.
Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution
Know: Earl Warren, Brown v. Board of Education, All Deliberate Speed, Little Rock Central High School, Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Sit-ins, Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee
6. Why was Brown v. Board of Education a landmark case?
- This was a landmark case because Brown v Board of Education was a landmark case because it overturned a previous Supreme Court decision (Plessy v Ferguson) which had essentially legalized discrimination and segregation. The SC ruling in Brown was that "separate but equal" was inherently never equal and was determined to be discrimination based on the 14th Amendment. That amendment was one of the Reconstruction Acts that was supposed to eliminate discrimination of the former slaves in the US. Plessy had put limitations on the 14th Amendment allowing segregation is the services were essentially the same (and "essentially was very loosely interpreted). In overturning Plessy, the whole Civil Rights movement got jumpstarted and was able to gain momentum in overturning all of the discrimination in services in the US.
Makers of America: The Great African-American Migration
7. Why did African Americans move north and west in the 1930's and 40's?
- During the war, jobs were needed in factories in the South. White workers were hired on the spot, but blacks were commonly denied. Business owners in the South would even import white workers from the North and West instead of hiring skilled black workers.
Eisenhower Republicanism at Home
Know: Dynamic Conservatism, Creeping Socialism, Interstate Highway Act, AFL-CIO
8. Did Eisenhower live up to his philosophy of dynamic conservatism?
- Eisenhower vetoed public housing measures, pollution regulation, and two major publics works projects. This reflects his attempts to not have the government be an agent of reform, especially if it prevents a balanced budget.
A “New Look” in Foreign Policy
Know: John Foster Dulles, Strategic Air Command, Massive Retaliation, Military-industrial Complex
9. Was Eisenhower's policy of massive retaliation effective? Explain.
-The term "massive retaliation" was coined by Eisenhower administration Secretary of State John Foster Dulles in a speech on January 12, 1954. By relying on a large nuclear arsenal for deterrence, President Eisenhower believed that conventional forces could be reduced while still maintaining military prestige and power and the capability to defend the western block.
Cold War Crises in Europe and the Middle East
Know: Shah of Iran, Gamal Abdel Nasser, The Suez Crisis, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Country
11. Why was the U.S. concerned about problems in the Middle East?
- Since the 19th century, US foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from .... While there are disputed issues between the two nations, relations are close and the ... See also: American intervention in the Middle East .
Round Two for "Ike"
Know: Teamsters, Jimmy Hoffa, Landrum-Griffin Act, , Missile Gap, National Defense and Education Act
12. What labor problems became evident during Eisenhower's second term?
- Labor problems were not severe at this time. There are always some strikes and the unions always want to repeal Taft-Hartley, but labor problems were not a focus in the 1960 campaign
The Continuing Cold War
Know: U-2 Spy Plane
13. Describe efforts at disarmament during the Eisenhower administration.
- Eisenhower hoped that after the death of Stalin in 1953, it would be possible to come to an agreement with subsequent Russian leaders to halt the nuclear arms race. The U-2 Spy plane was discovered and it was very embarrassing during that time.
Cuba's Castroism Spells Communism
Know: Fulgencio Batista, Fidel Castro
14. Why was revolution in Cuba such a concern to America?
- By most social and economic indicators, Cuba by mid-century was among Latin America’s most highly developed countries. However, in the postwar period it was afflicted with lacklustre economic growth and a corrupt political dictatorship set up in 1952 by the same Batista who earlier had helped put his country on a seemingly democratic path. It was also a country whose long history of economic and other dependence on the United States had fed nationalist resentment, although control of the sugar industry and other economic sectors by U.S. interests was gradually declining.
Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency
Know: Richard Nixon, Kitchen Debate, John Kennedy, New Frontier
15. Was Nixon a good presidential candidate in 1960?
- The United States presidential election of 1960 was the 44th American presidential election, held on November 8, 1960, for the term beginning January 20, 1961, and ending January 20, 1965. For this election, although Nixon did not win the spot, he did receive a very close amount of votes to the rival candidate Kennedy. This makes him a pretty good candidate at the time.
An Old General Fades Away
Know: Alaska, Hawaii
16. Evaluate Eisenhower's presidency.
- Oversaw Korean War, kept the pressure on the USSR during the Cold War, launched the Space Race, began the Interstate Highway System.
The Life of the Mind in Postwar America
Know: Catch-22, Arthur Miller, Catcher in the Rye, George Orwell
17. What do the books and plays of the post-war period say about the times in which they were produced?
- During these times a lot of people didn't know who to believe. They were also confused at the whole arms race between the US and USSR. This time society was changing and the cliche middle class family was beaming more popular, while society was becoming more risque.